Introduction
The Turkish mafia is one of the most influential criminal networks in the world, playing a crucial role in the global drug trade. Unlike other organized crime groups, Turkish gangs do not control raw drug production. Cocaine originates from South America, heroin’s poppy fields are in Afghanistan, and large cannabis plantations are absent in Anatolia. Yet, Turkish traffickers have become central players in the international narcotics trade, dominating distribution routes across Europe and beyond.
How did this happen?
The answer lies in history, geography, and an evolving criminal ecosystem that adapted to the shifting dynamics of the global drug trade. From state-controlled opium production in the early 20th century to mafia-run heroin networks in the 1970s, Turkish criminal organizations built their power through a combination of political ties, international connections, and strategic control over smuggling routes.
This article explores how Turkey became a pivotal hub for global heroin smuggling, the role of the Turkish mafia, and how the network evolved over time.
The Legal Opium Trade and Its Decline
For much of the 19th and early 20th centuries, Turkey was a major supplier of opium to the global pharmaceutical industry. The Ottoman Empire was one of the world’s leading producers, exporting opium to Europe and China. The substance was widely used for medical purposes, and morphine—first isolated in the early 19th century—became a critical component of pain relief during the American Civil War and other military conflicts.
By the early 1900s, Istanbul had several legal opium processing factories. Notable among them was the Société Anonyme Turque de Produits Pharmaceutiques et Chimiques, an international operation with Turkish, Armenian, Belgian, and Mexican ownership. The Etkim Factory, run by the Jewish-Turkish Taranto family, became one of the largest producers of morphine and heroin in the country.
However, as opiate addiction became a growing problem worldwide, international pressure mounted to regulate and eventually eliminate legal opium markets. The League of Nations reported in 1931 that significant amounts of Turkish morphine were entering the underground market rather than being used for medical purposes. By 1933, under diplomatic pressure from the United States, Turkey agreed to shut down its heroin factories and enforce stricter control over opium production.
The Transition to Illegal Markets
Despite these efforts, closing the legal opium trade did not eliminate the demand for Turkish opium. Instead, it drove the business underground. Many farmers, previously supplying legal markets, began selling to smugglers who paid significantly higher prices than the government.
By the 1950s, Turkey remained a significant source of illicit opium. Smugglers operated across the country, taking advantage of weak state controls. In 1959, traffickers reportedly paid farmers between 200 and 300 lira per kilo of raw opium, while the government price stood at just 50 lira per kilo. The fine for selling opium on the black market—only 30 lira per kilo—did little to deter traffickers.
By the mid-20th century, Turkish criminals had become not just suppliers but also manufacturers. The heroin trade, initially controlled by European groups in France’s Marseille, began shifting toward Turkish hands. With a growing network of laboratories and chemists, Turkey became a crucial part of the heroin pipeline supplying Western Europe and the United States.
The 1950s-1960s: From Opium to Heroin
The global heroin trade took a major turn in 1955 when Iran banned opium production, leaving a significant gap in the market. Turkish traffickers quickly stepped in, expanding their operations to meet demand. By the early 1960s, American intelligence agencies estimated that Turkish opium supplied over 70% of the heroin consumed in the U.S., though these numbers were later disputed.
The French Connection—a heroin smuggling network linking Turkish opium to Marseille’s refineries and then to the U.S.—thrived during this period. Turkish criminal organizations played a key role in this operation, moving raw opium and morphine base to French laboratories, where it was refined into heroin.
However, internal reports from U.S. agencies showed inconsistencies in estimating the level of Turkish opium diversion. The DEA (Drug Enforcement Agency) suggested that one-third of Turkish opium was illegally diverted, while the Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs claimed that two-thirds of Turkey’s opium went to the black market. These conflicting numbers fueled political debates between the U.S. and Turkish governments, but one thing was clear—Turkey had become a major heroin supplier.
Turkish traffickers also began producing heroin themselves, rather than just supplying raw opium. Regional criminal groups in Istanbul, Izmir, and the Black Sea region started refining the drug for direct export. Some of the most notorious figures of this time included İhsan Sekban, a powerful Istanbul gangster, and Hüseyin Eminoğlu, a key trafficker operating out of Turkey’s largest city.
As heroin demand surged in Western markets, Turkish traffickers expanded their networks, setting the stage for the next major phase in the international drug trade.
The Role of Organized Crime in Expanding the Trade
By the 1950s and 1960s, Turkey’s criminal networks had fully integrated into the global heroin trade. What started as small-scale smuggling operations by local traffickers evolved into a sophisticated system of drug production, transportation, and distribution.
One of the key transformations during this period was the shift from minority-dominated smuggling networks to nationalist Turkish crime syndicates. Historically, many major players in the opium trade had been non-Muslim merchants, including Greek, Armenian, and Jewish traders who operated legitimate and illicit businesses in Istanbul. However, as nationalist sentiments rose in Turkey—particularly after the 1950s—many of these groups lost their influence.
Turkish nationalists from the Black Sea region (Karadeniz) began filling the power vacuum. These groups had strong connections to political figures, particularly within the Demokrat Parti (DP), which ruled Turkey from 1950 to 1960. This period saw an increase in state involvement with organized crime, as traffickers cultivated relationships with law enforcement, customs officials, and politicians.
One striking example was the case of İhsan Sekban, a notorious Istanbul gangster who built a vast smuggling empire by bribing police officers and government officials. His operations, along with those of Hüseyin Eminoğlu, provided a blueprint for future Turkish mafia structures—where the line between organized crime and state institutions became increasingly blurred.
The French Connection: Turkey’s Role in Global Heroin Supply
By the 1960s, Turkey had become the primary source of heroin for the infamous “French Connection”, a network of traffickers that moved heroin from Marseille to the United States. Turkish opium was refined into heroin in French laboratories, operated by Corsican and Sicilian crime groups. The finished product was then smuggled into North America, where demand for heroin had surged.
The French Connection was responsible for flooding the U.S. with heroin, and Turkish traffickers played a vital role by supplying morphine base to Marseille’s drug labs. The operation was so significant that in 1961, the U.S. reported to CENTO (Central Treaty Organization) that 70% of heroin consumed in America originated from Turkish opium fields. By the mid-1960s, this estimate had risen to 80%, though the figure was widely disputed.
The connection between Turkish smugglers and their French counterparts was facilitated by middlemen in Istanbul and Izmir, who ensured smooth transport across the Mediterranean. One of the key figures in this network was Ahmet Soysal, a trafficker who built strong ties with Marseille-based heroin refiners. His associates, including Nazim Kalkavan and Hüseyin Eminoğlu, managed massive drug shipments to France, later destined for the U.S. market.
However, the French Connection was not the only route for Turkish heroin. During this period, Turkish traffickers also expanded their networks into Italy, working closely with the Sicilian Mafia. Italian ports became key entry points for heroin smuggled from Turkey, further integrating Turkish organized crime into the European drug market.
The 1970s: The Balkan Route and the Gastarbeiter Effect
By the 1970s, Turkish criminal organizations had fully established a direct heroin pipeline into Europe. While the French Connection remained a major smuggling route, another significant corridor emerged: the Balkan Route.
The Balkan Route ran through Turkey, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, and into Western Europe, making use of both state-controlled and underground smuggling networks. This route became even more vital as European law enforcement began cracking down on drug shipments through Marseille.
One of the key developments in the 1970s was the use of Turkish migrant workers (Gastarbeiter) in Europe to facilitate heroin smuggling. The Gastarbeiter program, which brought millions of Turkish laborers to Germany, France, and the Netherlands, inadvertently created a perfect distribution network for heroin traffickers. Turkish criminals used these migrant communities as couriers and dealers, ensuring that heroin reached the streets of European cities with minimal detection.
The CIA and DEA reported that heroin laboratories had shifted from France to new locations, including Turkey, Bulgaria, and Lebanon. One particularly important player in this transformation was the Bulgarian state-controlled company Kintex, which was actively involved in smuggling heroin into Europe.
Kintex, established in 1968, was controlled by the Bulgarian Intelligence Service and acted as a key facilitator for the Turkish mafia. Reports from U.S. intelligence and House of Representatives hearings in the 1980s revealed that Kintex was involved in an elaborate “guns-for-drugs” trade, exchanging weapons with Middle Eastern groups in return for heroin. One of the most notorious figures in this operation was Abuzer Uğurlu, a powerful Turkish trafficker who worked closely with Kintex and was granted Bulgarian citizenship.
The 1970s was a turning point for Turkish organized crime. The combination of established smuggling routes, diaspora networks in Europe, and cooperation with other criminal groups allowed Turkish traffickers to consolidate power. By the end of the decade, the Turkish mafia had gone fully global, extending its reach far beyond the country’s borders.
Key Figures in the Turkish Mafia’s Rise
The expansion of Turkish organized crime into international heroin smuggling was not the result of a single leader but rather a network of powerful figures who built the infrastructure of the trade. These individuals, often operating with the protection of corrupt officials, ensured Turkey’s dominance in heroin trafficking.
İhsan Sekban: The Istanbul Kingpin
One of the most influential figures of the 1950s and 1960s, İhsan Sekban controlled large portions of the heroin trade in Istanbul. Unlike older, non-Muslim traffickers such as Vasil Arcan, Sekban represented a new generation of Turkish smugglers—nationalists with deep ties to law enforcement and political entities.
Sekban’s success came from his ability to bribe officials, use violence, and manage logistics. He worked directly with both rural opium farmers and major traffickers in France and Lebanon, ensuring a steady flow of heroin through Istanbul’s ports.
Hüseyin Eminoğlu: Mastermind of the Smuggling Empire
Another key figure was Hüseyin Eminoğlu, whose operations in Istanbul were highly sophisticated and international. Eminoğlu initially worked with Ali Osman Tüter, a former Turkish military police officer who had turned into a heroin chemist. Their partnership enabled them to manufacture and distribute heroin on a large scale, bypassing traditional French refiners.
Eminoğlu’s network was also notable for its connections to Lebanon. He worked with Sami al-Khoury, a powerful Lebanese drug trafficker, to arrange large heroin shipments to Europe.
Bekir Çelenk: The Link Between Turkey, Bulgaria, and Italy
One of the most pivotal figures in the internationalization of the Turkish mafia was Bekir Çelenk, a trafficker who connected Turkish smugglers with criminal organizations in Bulgaria and Italy.
Çelenk played a major role in establishing the Balkan Route, which became the primary land-based smuggling corridor for heroin moving from Turkey into Europe. He was particularly known for his dealings with the Bulgarian state-controlled Kintex company, which facilitated arms-for-drugs transactions.
Abuzer Uğurlu: Architect of the Balkan Route
Perhaps the most notorious of them all, Abuzer Uğurlu was the first truly international Turkish mafia boss, with a net worth in the billions. He worked closely with Kintex and Bulgarian intelligence, ensuring heroin shipments reached Europe while securing arms shipments in return.
Uğurlu was granted Bulgarian citizenship and became a key player in the heroin-for-arms trade, working closely with both the Sicilian Mafia and Middle Eastern arms dealers.
The 1980s: The Peak of the Turkish Mafia’s Influence
By the 1980s, the Turkish mafia had fully integrated into the global heroin trade. No longer middlemen between farmers and European refiners, they had complete control over the supply chain—from processing to distribution.
One of the biggest changes was the emergence of Kurdish smuggling networks, particularly in the southeastern city of Diyarbakır. According to DEA intelligence reports, Kurdish clans established heroin laboratories along the Turkish-Iranian border, replacing the old French and Lebanese refining systems.
The 1980s also marked the period when Turkish mafia operations extended to the United States. Europol and FBI reports show that Turkish heroin traffickers established direct contacts with crime syndicates in New York, particularly with Italian and Albanian crime families.
In New York alone, heroin sales tied to Turkish traffickers exceeded $8 billion annually. This staggering revenue allowed Turkish criminal organizations to expand their operations beyond drugs, investing in money laundering, real estate, and arms trafficking.
Political Connections and State Protection
One of the most striking aspects of Turkish organized crime in the 1980s was its deep entanglement with state officials. The Minister of Customs and Monopoly, Tuncay Mataracı, was implicated in facilitating heroin shipments.
The 1980 Turkish military coup, rather than eliminating organized crime, allowed the mafia to strengthen its influence. Military officials focused on political repression rather than fighting smuggling networks, leaving drug traffickers free to expand their businesses.
The 1990s-Present: Diversification and Expansion
By the 1990s, the Turkish mafia was no longer just a heroin empire—it had diversified into human trafficking, arms smuggling, and financial crimes.
One of the most infamous figures of this era was Hüseyin Baybaşin, who ran a multi-billion-dollar heroin empire from his base in the Netherlands. He was known as the “Pablo Escobar of Europe”, using the Turkish diaspora as a built-in smuggling network across Germany, the UK, and the Netherlands.
The Kurdish PKK (Kurdistan Workers’ Party) also entered the drug trade, financing its insurgency through heroin smuggling. Reports from Europol and Turkish intelligence suggest that PKK-linked groups controlled a significant portion of the heroin trade in Europe.
As globalization accelerated, the Turkish mafia expanded its operations beyond heroin. Money laundering became a key business, with mafia figures investing in banks, construction, and even politics.
The Rise of Modern Crime Lords
Figures like Sedat Peker and Alaattin Çakıcı emerged as major players in both the criminal underworld and nationalist political circles. Peker, in particular, was seen as a modern-day godfather, involved in drug trafficking, extortion, and political deals.
Despite numerous crackdowns, the Turkish mafia remains one of the most powerful criminal organizations in the world today. The heroin trade may have evolved, but its legacy of smuggling, violence, and corruption continues.
Conclusion
The transformation of Turkish organized crime—from opium middlemen to global heroin lords—is a remarkable case study in the evolution of the drug trade.
- In the early 20th century, Turkey was one of the world’s leading legal opium producers.
- As global regulations tightened, Turkish traffickers turned to the black market, first as suppliers and later as heroin producers.
- By the 1960s-1970s, Turkish gangs controlled key smuggling routes into Europe, working with French, Italian, and Bulgarian crime syndicates.
- The 1980s marked their peak, with billions of dollars flowing through Turkish criminal networks, extending their influence into politics, finance, and weapons trafficking.
- Today, the Turkish mafia remains one of the most resilient and globalized crime groups, adapting to new markets, technologies, and geopolitical shifts.
From poppy fields in Anatolia to heroin pipelines in Europe and the U.S., the Turkish mafia’s reach is undeniable. Their history serves as a cautionary tale of how organized crime thrives in the shadows of global conflicts, economic shifts, and political corruption.
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Research and Production by Yağız Alp Tekin
